What scalable manufacturing methods are proving effective?
Several industrial-compatible fabrication techniques have been demonstrated at the meter scale, each addressing a different application. For example, a 2025 study used a simple blending and dissolving method to produce transmission-type cooling films at the meter scale, achieving 95% solar reflectivity and 80% mid-infrared transmittance, while cutting costs by 68% and CO2 emissions by 92% [2]. Another 2025 study used self-assembled gradient nanolayer coextrusion to create a 1500-layer all-polymer photonic crystal film with 95.4% solar reflectance and 93.4% mid-infrared emissivity, enabling sub-ambient cooling of 11°C under strong sunlight [3]. This solvent-free, continuous process bridges nanophotonic design with industrial manufacturing.
Electrospinning is another scalable route. A 2023 study produced biodegradable fiber membranes from silk fibroin and polylactic acid via electrospinning, achieving 96.1% solar reflectance and 95.4% infrared emittance, with sub-ambient cooling of ~6°C [7]. Similarly, a 2021 study used industrial textile manufacturing to create woven metafabrics with 92.4% solar reflectivity and 94.5% emissivity, cooling the wearer ~4.8°C below cotton [4]. Melt extrusion and water leaching, a continuous and eco-friendly method, produced polyethylene fibers with directional microchannels that achieved 93.6% sunlight reflectivity and 93.9% mid-infrared emissivity, with the highest reported cooling power of 104.3 W/m² and temperature drop of 27.7°C [6]. These diverse methods show that scalability is not limited to one approach.
Can these materials survive real-world conditions and remain affordable?
Durability and cost are critical for industrial adoption, and recent studies directly address both. A 2024 study tackled the trade-off between UV durability and cooling performance by adding a high UV-reflective polymer multilayer film to a polymer cooler. This increased solar reflectance by 5.43% and cooling by ~1.1°C, while significantly slowing UV aging—after 120 hours of UV exposure, solar reflectance was 5.08% higher than without the UV layer [1]. The multilayer film is produced by low-cost, large-area coextrusion, making it suitable for any polymer cooler.
Cost-effectiveness is also demonstrated. The 2025 transmission-type film reduced costs by 68% compared to traditional methods [2]. A 2026 study reported a scalable photonic metamaterial coating with 94% solar reflectance and 97% long-wave infrared emittance, achieving sub-ambient cooling of 5.3°C, and noted its cost-effectiveness and ability to be applied via various industrial modes [5]. A 2023 ceramic with 99.6% solar reflectivity and >130 W/m² cooling power was highlighted for its weather resistance, mechanical robustness, and ability to suppress the Leidenfrost effect, facilitating commercialization in building construction [10]. Even recyclability is being built in: a 2022 polymer membrane with 96% solar reflectance and >90% infrared emittance is reconfigurable and recyclable, extending its life [11].
What challenges still need to be overcome?
Despite progress, a 2025 review identifies a persistent gap between lab-reported materials and practical applications, citing high costs, complex manufacturing, insufficient cooling performance, and potential nano- or micro-hazards [9]. While many studies show scalable production, not all materials have been tested for long-term outdoor durability or in diverse climates. For example, the biodegradable fiber membrane degrades in soil in one month, which is excellent for end-of-life but raises questions about lifespan during use [7]. The high-performance ceramic is robust but may be heavier or more brittle than polymer alternatives [10].
Another challenge is balancing aesthetics with performance. A 2026 study addressed this by developing color-regulating coatings that maintain high solar reflectance (94%) and emissivity (97%) while allowing color customization, which is important for building integration [5]. However, most high-performance coolers are white or highly reflective, which may limit architectural acceptance. The review also notes that dynamic radiative cooling, such as smart windows that adjust emissivity with temperature, is still in early stages [8]. Overall, the evidence shows that industrial scale is achievable, but further work is needed on long-term reliability, aesthetic variety, and safety testing.
About These Sources
This answer is built on 11 peer-reviewed studies — published from 2021 to 2026, 6 from 2024 or later, 5 in Q1 journals, collectively cited 2,383 times — selected as the most relevant from 14 studies that passed quality screening, drawn from 48 papers retrieved from a database of over 500 million.
Sources used in this answer
Simultaneous Enhancement of Cooling Performance and Durability of the Polymer Radiative Cooler by a High UV-Reflective Polymer Multilayer Film.
A UV-reflective polymer multilayer film (92.3% UV reflectance) added to a TiO2-doped epoxy cooler increased solar reflectance by 5.43% and cooling by ~1.1°C, while reducing UV aging; the film is made by low-cost, large-area coextrusion.
High Performance Transmission-Type Daytime Radiative Cooling Film with a Simple and Scalable Method.
A transmission-type radiative cooling film produced at meter scale via a blending/dissolving method achieved 95% solar reflectivity and 80% mid-IR transmittance, reducing costs by 68% and CO2 emissions by 92%.
Scalable All-Polymer Photonic Crystals for Daytime Radiative Cooling.
A 1500-layer all-polymer photonic crystal film made by gradient nanolayer coextrusion and biaxial stretching achieved 95.4% solar reflectance and 93.4% mid-IR emissivity, enabling 11°C sub-ambient cooling under 980 W/m² solar irradiance.
Hierarchical-morphology metafabric for scalable passive daytime radiative cooling
A woven metafabric produced via industrial textile manufacturing achieved 92.4% solar reflectivity and 94.5% emissivity, cooling the wearer ~4.8°C below cotton, with mechanical strength and breathability.
Scalable-Designed Photonic Metamaterial for Color-Regulating Passive Daytime Radiative Cooling.
A scalable photonic metamaterial coating (71.5% crystallinity) achieved ~94% solar reflectance and ~97% long-wave IR emittance, with sub-ambient cooling of 5.3°C in Nanjing; applicable via various industrial modes.
Polyethylene fibers containing directional microchannels for passive radiative cooling
Polyethylene fibers with directional microchannels, made by melt extrusion and water leaching, achieved 93.6% sunlight reflectivity and 93.9% mid-IR emissivity, with the highest reported cooling power (104.3 W/m²) and temperature drop (27.7°C).
Biodegradable, scalable and flexible fiber membrane for green passive radiative cooling
A biodegradable fiber membrane from silk fibroin and polylactic acid, made by electrospinning, achieved 96.1% solar reflectance and 95.4% IR emittance, with ~6°C sub-ambient cooling; degrades in soil in one month.
Scalable thermochromic smart windows with passive radiative cooling regulation
Scalable smart windows with solution-processed coatings achieved high (0.61) and low (0.21) long-wave IR emissivity at different temperatures, enabling dynamic radiative cooling while maintaining visible transparency.
Progress in passive daytime radiative cooling from spectral design to real application
A review of passive daytime radiative cooling identifies a gap between lab materials and real-world use due to high costs, complex manufacturing, insufficient performance, and potential nano/micro-hazards.
Hierarchically structured passive radiative cooling ceramic with high solar reflectivity
A cellular ceramic with 99.6% solar reflectivity and high thermal emissivity provided >130 W/m² cooling power at noon, with weather resistance, mechanical robustness, and Leidenfrost effect suppression.
Rationally Tuning Phase Separation in Polymeric Membranes toward Optimized All-day Passive Radiative Coolers.
A polymer membrane made by non-solvent-induced phase separation achieved 96% solar reflectance and >90% IR emittance, with sub-ambient cooling of ~5.7°C and cooling power of ~81 W/m²; it is reconfigurable and recyclable.