What should I do if there are no page numbers in the citations of an article?

If no page numbers are available in the cited source, acknowledge their absence explicitly within your citation while providing the best alternative locator information. Page numbers can typically be omitted according to major academic style guides when suitable alternatives are used or when the entire work is referenced. Key principles include determining the most precise available locator element. For electronic sources lacking pagination, paragraph numbers (preceded by 'para.' or the ¶ symbol) or section headings can substitute. For prefaces or chapters in books, cite the chapter title or number. Audiovisual materials may require timestamps. Always consult the specific requirements of your chosen style guide (e.g., APA, MLA, Chicago), as recommendations on acceptable substitutes and formatting differ. Crucially, strive to guide the reader as accurately as feasible to the relevant passage. Implementation involves identifying viable alternative locators within the source itself. If the source has numbered paragraphs (often in official reports or some web documents), cite the paragraph number(s). If paragraphs are unnumbered but the source has distinct section headings, cite the relevant section heading. For books or long documents without page numbers, chapter titles or numbers are appropriate. For audiovisual content, cite the relevant hour:minute:second timestamp. If no locator exists, cite the entire work, ensuring the context makes it clear which specific information is being referenced. Avoid inventing locators; use only those provided by the source or its stable presentation format.