Does sex change the risk?
Yes, and the pattern is not simply 'one sex is worse off.' In a large Korean study of nearly 10,000 adults, men consumed about 401 grams of UPFs daily compared to 260 grams for women, and high UPF intake was significantly linked to obesity only in men (28% higher odds) [1]. However, a Brazilian study of over 21,000 adults found that depression was associated with high UPF consumption only in women (35% higher odds), not in men [2]. This suggests that while men may eat more UPFs and face greater obesity risk, women with depression may be more likely to turn to UPFs, creating a different kind of vulnerability.
Does age change the risk?
Absolutely. The transition from adolescence to young adulthood appears to be a critical window. In a Filipino cohort followed from age 15 to 25, UPF intake was linked to higher blood pressure, but the effects were strongest at specific ages: for females, UPF intake at age 15 predicted higher systolic blood pressure at age 18 [7]. In German children and adolescents (ages 3-17), each 10% increase in UPF consumption raised the odds of becoming overweight by 12% over an 11-year follow-up [6]. Meanwhile, older adults (65+) in Italy showed a different pattern: they actually improved their diet quality over time, while younger adults' diets worsened [5]. This suggests that UPF harms may be most pronounced during growth and development, and that dietary habits become more entrenched in younger adults.
Does baseline health change the risk?
Yes, and the evidence is striking. People with existing health conditions appear to be more sensitive to UPF's effects. For instance, in a massive 21-country study of over 116,000 adults, those who ate 5 or more servings of UPFs per day had an 82% higher risk of developing inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) compared to those who ate less than one serving [3]. Similarly, in a study of multiple sclerosis (MS) patients, higher UPF consumption was linked to a nearly 3-fold increase in the odds of having moderate-to-severe MS versus mild disease [8]. Even for diabetes, a Korean study found that high UPF intake raised diabetes risk by 34%, even after accounting for overall diet quality and body weight [4]. This indicates that UPFs may accelerate disease progression in those already vulnerable.
About These Sources
This answer is built on 8 peer-reviewed studies — published from 2021 to 2025, 5 from 2024 or later, 2 in Q1 journals, collectively cited 417 times — selected as the most relevant from 15 studies that passed quality screening, drawn from 48 papers retrieved from a database of over 500 million.
Sources used in this answer
Gender Differences in Ultra-Processed Food Consumption and Its Association with Obesity Among Korean Adults
In a cross-sectional study of 9,662 Korean adults, men consumed more UPFs (401g vs 260g daily) and high UPF intake was significantly associated with obesity only in men (28% higher odds).
Association between depression and ultra-processed food consumption: a population-based study (Vigitel, 2023).
In a cross-sectional study of 21,690 Brazilian adults, depression was associated with 35% higher odds of high UPF consumption in women, but no significant association was found in men.
Association of ultra-processed food intake with risk of inflammatory bowel disease: prospective cohort study
In a prospective cohort study of 116,087 adults across 21 countries, those eating ≥5 servings/day of UPFs had an 82% higher risk of developing inflammatory bowel disease over 9.7 years of follow-up.
Ultra-processed Food Intake and Risk of Type 2 Diabetes in Korean Adults
In a prospective cohort study of 7,438 Korean adults (40-69 years), those in the highest quartile of UPF intake had a 34% higher risk of type 2 diabetes over 15 years, independent of diet quality and BMI.
The 15-year trend in adherence to dietary recommendations and ultra-processed food consumption in Italy
In a repeated cross-sectional analysis of Italian dietary data, UPF consumption as a percentage of energy nearly doubled from 2005-2006 to 2018-2020, with younger adults showing worsening diet quality while older adults improved.
Association of ultra-processed food patterns with overweight and obesity in the German health interview and examination survey for children and adolescents (KiGGS): a longitudinal study
In a longitudinal study of 4,762 German children and adolescents (3-17 years), each 10% increase in UPF consumption was associated with 12% higher odds of overweight over an 11-year follow-up.
Blood pressure is associated with ultra-processed food intake in a sex- and age-specific manner during the transition to adulthood in Cebu, Philippines
In a longitudinal study of 2,124 Filipino young adults (ages 15-25), UPF intake was modestly associated with higher blood pressure, with effects varying by sex and age (e.g., sugary drinks linked to higher SBP in females at age 21).
Ultra-processed foods consumption is associated with multiple sclerosis severity
In a cross-sectional study of Italian multiple sclerosis patients, higher UPF consumption was associated with nearly 3-fold higher odds of having moderate-to-severe MS versus mild disease.